DCUSH

by itsmetaphorical

Summary:

This is my reading for dual credit US History

Notes:

Thanks, Mr. L!!

Chapter 1: NEW IMPERIALISM: PATERNALISM ABROAD

NEW IMPERIALISM:

PATERNALISM ABROAD

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• INTRODUCTION/CONTEXT: “THE FRONTIER THESIS…AGAIN!”

 

Ok, DCUSH warriors,

Welcome to Part TWO of our “Progressive Empire” readings. Remember, regardless of which one you begin WITH, focus on bringing them both TOGETHER as a coherent period of time with two big themes. If the last reading was all about “Progressivism,” this one will be all about “Imperialism.” I challenge you to consider the ways in which these two seemingly different THEMES are ACTUALLY similar, and whatever the implications (impacts?) of those similarities might BE on history, as a “residual consequence,” if you will…

So, you’re probably thinking: If the last reading began in the 1800s with the Populist FAILURE, then, where do we begin this one? Well, we’ll be in the late-1800s again (for the LAST TIME, I promise!), but rather than focus on the “Populists” of the 1890s, let’s instead begin with our dear old friend Fredrick Jackson Turner and his “Frontier Thesis,” AGAIN! Why? Because (if you recall) he highlighted a very important THEME of U.S. History from throughout the beginning: WESTWARD EXPANSION. In particular, he argued that the “Frontier” represented a “Safety Valve” for America’s problems. (I.E.: European Immigrants, ‘un-Manly’ Men (FAILURES!), and resource scarcity - to name a few of the ‘problems’ Americans of the Gilded Age believed in.) By the time of his presentation of this argument in 1893, Turner (and MANY OTHERS) were realizing a problem was emerging: IF the Frontier was CLOSED, then what does that mean for America if it no longer HAS this all-important “Safety Valve” to release socio-economic pressures?

Well, hopefully, NOW you can see an alternative consideration of how to interpret “The People’s Party” of the 1890s and the significance of our Cowardly Lion himself, William Jennings Bryan. But, here we must make an important distinction that will matter greatly for U.S. History from here on out for the remainder of the year, that of Domestic Policy and Foreign Policy. While one describes actions of the Federal Government in managing issues WITHIN the nation (at HOME), the other refers to how the nation interacts with the rest of the world, internationally (OVERSEAS). Again, consider the SIMILARITIES in both of these policies in the so-called “Progressive Era,” and prepare to analyze how they develop throughout the rest of the 20th and 21st centuries…

 

 

• NEW IMPERIALISM

• SPHERES OF INFLUENCE

 

As you may recall, early-19th-century Americans were guided by the Jacksonian/Jeffersonian impulse of MANIFEST DESTINY. While the frontier may have been deemed “closed” by the Census Bureau in 1890, government officials and politicians had been considering what would come next for DECADES! In the post-Mexican American War U.S., though the South engaged in “Filibustering” to attempt to EXPAND “the South” outwards, and southwards - like, to, I don’t know… CUBA?! - the North formulated Market Expansions! Now, quick differentiation between the mid-19th century market EXPANSION of the North and the earlier Market Revolution. While the early 1800s saw a growth in infrastructure and industry that united the Northern and (Mid)Western regions together into one marketplace, and somewhat connected them with the South down below as well, THIS “Market Expansion” push was about TRADE! In particular, there was clearly MONEY to be made in the Asian markets. Especially China!

By the 1840s, the United Kingdom/Great Britain had ‘broken’ into the Chinese market by working to collapse the Qing Dynasty. See, in the 1830s, the British had a GENIUS idea that in order to get “cheap tea,” they would need to establish a reliable trade balance with Chinese suppliers. So, the British imported opium (from their colony of India) into China. A LOT of opium. In fact, SO MUCH opium that the East India Company (remember THEM!?) had established a monopoly on Chinese tea exports. Whenever this dynamic was threatened, by international pressure or internal Chinese government policies and reforms, the Royal Navy would intervene to “protect British interests.” TWICE, the British engaged the Chinese in so-called “Opium Wars,” first in the late 1830s/early 1840s, and then again in the 1850s, this time with French assistance! The results? Well, quite a few, actually.

FIRST, Britain required the Qing Dynasty to sign the Treaty of Nanking, which - among other things - established a British Colony in Hong Kong. At first, the colony was simply a British-ruled port of entry; however, following the SECOND Opium War victory in 1860, the colonial territory EXPANDED to include the surrounding peninsula. By 1900, England embraced a new tactic, whereby even MORE territory surrounding Hong Kong would be “leased” (Rented), for 99 years, or - as the British said - “as good as forever.”

SECOND, the success of the British conquest of China enticed other “Great Powers” (France, Russia, Spain, the Dutch, and by 1870, Germany) to ramp up imperial expansion there as well. Throughout the remainder of the 19th century, European powers competed for direct control, or at least “influence” over more and more territory, in China, the rest of Asia, Africa, and even Eastern Europe! In these various “Scrambles,” a NEW “Imperial Order” emerged. Clearly, this “New Imperialism” was STILL about colonial possessions and markets (just like the “Old” Imperialism of the 15th and 16th centuries), however, notice that THIS TIME there were not only new imperial powers to compete with, but also a unique IDEOLOGY to “justify” the territorial conquests, resource exploitation, and native subjigations: “The White Man’s Burden.” According to the theory, colonization wasn’t just about the imperial homeland ENRICHING itself - not ANYMORE! - NOW, it was ALSO about “civilizing” the colonies. Business investments brought JOBS to the colonies. Missionaries brought CHRISTIANITY and, therefore, SALVATION to the colonies. Armed forces brought ORDER and SECURITY to the colonies. Education, innovation, culture, morality - you name it, European Empires believed that they brought it with them. And all for the low, low cost of complete colonization! How benevolent…

 

There’s A LOT to take in here with this one. Pay attention to EVERY DETAIL…

 

THIRD, as you can tell from the previous image, the United States didn’t want to “miss out” on the action…

 

 

• TO THE WEST OF WESTWARD EXPANSION

 

Alright, so the US wants in on China, but things are happening QUICK! Not only were the “Great Powers” grabbing up territory EVERYWHERE as either colonies or “Spheres of Influence,” but back home, the Antebellum period saw rising sectional tensions that would eventually spill over into the Civil War. Anything that U.S. expansionists did would need to be fast and effective, but also small, nearly negligible enough to avoid worsening domestic tensions or incurring international retaliation. So, what’s the plan?

Well… there really isn’t one. At least not a coherent one yet. Throughout the 1850s and for most of the 1860s, the clear focus of U.S. government policy was the slavery question and the resulting Civil War. But that didn’t mean they couldn’t take “baby steps” to becoming a “Great Power” themselves! For example, in the 1850s, President Millard Fillmore (you know, the “Compromise of 1850” guy!) took the initiative in asserting American presence overseas by ordering the U.S. Navy to FORCE Japan to open for trade! In 1852, Commodore Matthew Perry set sail from Hampton Roads, VA, to round the horn of South Africa and approach Asia from the Indian Ocean. Boy, what if there were some sort of CANAL through the middle of South America that would provide a more DIRECT ROUTE? Concerned with being forced OUT of the Chinese Market, the Perry Expedition was meant to OPEN Japan for U.S. trade while also thereby asserting a clear “U.S. presence” in the region to justify trade with China - a sort of American “Sphere of Influence,” if you will. When Perry and his fleet arrived off the coast of Uraga in 1853, clearly, the Hermit Kingdom of Japan was thrilled about the “opportunity”:

This act of “Gunboat Diplomacy” brought about the Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854, wherein the Americans forced the Shogun of Japan to end the 200-year policy of isolation, reverse the policy of Christian persecution/exclusion, AND open up harbor ports for exclusive trade access with the United States. Ultimately, upon Perry’s departure, the time of the Shogunate was over in Japan, and internal chaos ensued… but for only a brief time. However, access to China remained elusive, as the “Great Powers” continued to treat the United States as a lesser power. Clearly, something drastic would need to take place to get a seat at the “Big Kid’s” table!

In 1856, a year after Perry’s return to the United States, the Senate passed the Guano Islands Act. Ok, let’s pause here for a moment. You’re probably thinking: “Mr. Lange… ‘guano?’... isn’t that BIRD POOP!?” NO! According to Google, guano is “the accumulation of bat, seal, AND bird poop!” Which is FAR MORE valuable! Now, why did Senator William Henry Seward (Yes, THAT William Seward from past units of study!) believe this law was necessary? A FEW REASONS:

1. In the 1830s, Jackson oversaw a naval expedition into the Pacific Ocean under the command of Charles Wilkes. While the results at the time were disappointing compared with the total costs of the venture, in retrospect, all of the small, bird-poop-coated islands that were mapped gave U.S. businessmen ideas about investment opportunities ($$$$$)
2. Claiming the “poop islands” would give the United States “stepping stones” to China that would hopefully serve to strengthen national claims to accessing Asian trade markets!

 

Seward’s law (enacted by President Pierce) was worded in a way so as to give the U.S. first DIBS on international claims to islands that were “uninhabited” and “unclaimed” by other nations, thereby allowing American Citizens to go out there and DEVELOP them! All told, roughly 100 islands were immediately “claimed” by the U.S. as a result of the act! Sort of makes the phrase: “One man’s trash is another man’s treasure” take on a whole new meaning, eh?

 

Boy oh boy! Look at all that “WHITE GOLD”!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

 

And yet, surprise surprise, for some reason, claiming bird poop islands wasn’t ENOUGH to earn European RESPECT! Fortunately, Seard wasn’t done yet! As Lincoln’s Secretary of State, Seward worked in the 1860s to secure more than just “bird poop” islands. His next target? “Siberia’s Siberia”... ALASKA! Why? Well, there’s GOLD in California, so maybe there’s some up there too? Also, there are tons of seals there, which means profitability for BOTH their skins AND their poop! Plus, “safety valve” too, I guess? You get the idea! By 1865, with the end of the Civil War, Tsar Alexander II of the Russian Empire resumed negotiations with Seward over the potential purchase of the Alaskan Peninsula. By 1867, the agreed-upon rate was roughly two cents per acre, adding up to a grand total of $7.2 Million. While most Americans considered the idea ridiculous and dubbed the deal “Seward’s Folly,” President Andrew Johnson hoped that it would be a nice distraction from his Reconstruction-related issues. At the time of Seward’s death in 1872, the “folly” narrative persisted; however, he was ultimately vindicated in 1896 with the discovery of GOLD in the Klondike region of Alaska!

Despite Seward’s retirement in 1869, throughout the remainder of the 19th century, U.S. officials would continue in his footsteps of pursuing international respect and territorial expansion. President Grant, for example, attempted to “enforce the Monroe Doctrine” by annexing (claiming/taking) Santo Domingo (Dominican Republic). In the 1860s, Santo Domingo had gained independence from the Spanish Empire, and - according to Grant - to defend their “independence” from attempts by Spain to reconquer them, the United States had a responsibility to CLAIM the nation as a territory! The attempts ultimately failed with a Senate rejection of a drafted treaty in 1870. However, still seeking RESPECT, in 1870, Grant established a commission to investigate and research the logistics of developing a CANAL through the middle of Latin/South America, to facilitate easier trade access to Asia/The Pacific. The commission settled on the nation of Nicaragua as the ideal location; however, by the 1880s, independent French developers (who had previously dug the “Suez Canal” in Egypt) began to look into options further South. Clearly, RESPECT was still a ways off for the Americans in international relations…

Throughout the 1870s and 1880s, during the “Gilded Age,” while the U.S. government attempted to address the Long Depression and Money Question, American businesses utilized the Guano Islands Act to start developing infrastructure and investments across the Pacific, even into inhabited islands, like the Kingdom of Hawaii. Why? EXOTIC FRUITS!!!!!!!!!! 

Bananas, Pineapples, Mangos, and other fruits became a status symbol of wealth, and a VERY profitable venture for entrepreneurs. So, by 1890, you have an interesting and TOTALLY UNIQUE, never been done before, situation where the U.S. has “official” territories in the Pacficic AND American BUSINESSES have created “unofficial” territories. Did THIS create “respect” to allow us to FINALLY have access to China? NO! But…

…THIS DID!

 

As American businesses made money but the American government failed to succeed in international expansion, HISTORIANS did what we do best: We asked WHY!? Throughout the 1880s, in particular, historians dove into the narratives and sources of past empires and colonization, attempting to determine WHAT made them succeed, where the United States had (so far) failed. While all of them came to the same conclusion, the historian who typically gets THE MOST credit is Alfred Thayer Mahan, a naval historian who “synthesized” (combined) the theses of others into one BIG book. In 1890, Mahan’s The Influence of Sea Power Upon History captivated audiences - including politicians - who learned that if you WANT to be a BIG Empire, then you’re going to need a BIG NAVY! I mean, DUH, right? Think back to the British Empire, and the Spanish before them! So, what are Americans going to DO about this realization? BUILD A BIG NAVY!

Seen here: Harrison dumping money into the Battleship Act as part of the 1890 “Billion-dollar Congress”…

 

 

• THE ELECTION OF 1896, REDUX!

 

So what does any of that stuff we just established even mean? Well, it’s a whole new CONTEXT for the Election of 1896, isn’t it? Whereas before, the Bryan v. McKinley matchup was about Silver v. Gold, Laborer/Farmer v. Boss/Banker, NOW we can see that the future of American EXPANSION was on the line, too. In fact, despite the victory, McKinley and his policies, especially the economic ones, were relatively UNpopular - at least with the large working-class population. By April 1898, less than one year after being inaugurated into office, McKinley and his administration were looking for a release, or “safety valve” for the increasing social and political tensions that the economic situation was continuing to produce. Fortunately, they would not have to look very far…

 

Two VERY different portrayals of “Uncle Sam” here. Do you see it? How do the messages compare?

 

• A SPLENDID LITTLE WAR!

• CUBA & YELLOW JOURNALISM

 

For decades, American interests have been focused on Cuba, and while previously there was nothing that could be done about those desires, the 1890s finally presented an INCREDIBLE opportunity! First, let’s recap the MOTIVATIONS for U.S. expansion: If we want to get to China ($$$$), then we’ll need to build a BIG Navy to become an Empire. BUT: With the “Great Powers” grabbing everything up within sight, what’s left for us to take (besides Bird Poop islands). Well, we’ll need to beat up an Empire and take their stuff! Kind of like the “prison rules” they teach you in “Teacher School” about "intimidating" the BIGGEST/BADDEST Student in your class on Day 1 so that you can assert authority in classroom management - OH WAIT! That’s not where I learned that, NEVERMIND! Anyway… WHO IS AMERICA GOING TO BEAT UP?!?!? Let’s consult the “(European) Empire Tier List,” shall we:

 

1. THE BRITISH (Sun never sets on ‘em)
2. The Germans (The aggressive newcomer to the game!)
3. The French (believe it or not!)
4. The Dutch (I guess?)
5. The Russians (Although most of what they own is their OWN country…)
6. The Spanish (Technically still an empire, but BARELY…)

 

If you’re the American government, looking at the list above, you have to consider a few things in your decision-making process:

1. Can you beat them?
2. Do they have stuff near China?
3. Do they have stuff near YOU?
4. Can you come up with a JUSTIFICATION for attacking them?

 

Based on all of the above, the BEST option for the United States is… SPAIN! Why?

1. They’re WEAK! - Literally centuries of rebellion in the Western Hemisphere have shrunk not only territorial claims, but wealth and resources too…
2. They have STUFF near China - In particular: THE PHILIPPINES!
3. They have STUFF near YOU - Cuba & Puerto Rico, to be exact…

 

My how the mighty have FALLEN…

 

Mr. Lange, what about the “justification”...? Well, we return once again to THE PRESS! However, unlike the “muckrakers” of the Progressive Era, here, we have the Yellow Press, which means: Journalists who write up sensationalized versions of stories, pulling emotion to sell papers! How’d they do that? Well, the Spanish-appointed Governor of Cuba in the 1890s was General Valero Weyler, but newspapers like Joseph Pulitzer’s New York World, and William Randolph Hearst’s New York Journal, just simply called him “THE BUTCHER.” Ok, but WHY? Well, in the early 1890s, the Cuban people ROSE UP, and REBELLED against the Spanish Empire… and were ruthlessly CRUSHED by Weyler.

By his orders, hundreds of Thousands of Cubans were relocated into “concentration camps” to prevent rebellion from spreading. Worse yet, American business investments in Sugar plantations were SHUT DOWN! The press ran WILD, with story after story of deaths, torture, sexual violence, and even cannibalism…

While the narrative sold papers, it also caused American readers to feel compelled to DO SOMETHING! We are the “protectors” of this hemisphere afterall, aren’t we? Does NOT the “Monroe Doctrine” require America to defend our neighbors against European aggression? Do not our PRINCIPLES OF LIBERTY demand that we assist those who seek FREEDOM? Does the profitability potential of sugar in the region not MANDATE we take over LIBERATE the oppressed?

 

• EMPIRE OF LIBERTY

 

Despite the yellow press, McKinley took a firm stance against intervention. The Monroe Doctrine did NOT extend to involvement in internal affairs of imperial colonies in the Americas, only to PRESERVING independence. Cuba LOST its revolution, and the consequences are Spain’s burden to bear, not ours. At least, that was his tone…

In 1898, a rapid series of events changed McKinley’s mind. In January, to relieve pressure from the public, the business sector, and his own administration, the President authorized the deployment of a US battleship to Cuba, the USS Maine. To “protect American interests,” the Maine was parked off the coast of the capital city of Havana. However, the ulterior motive was to coerce the Spanish authorities in Cuba into diplomatic relations with the Americans to gain protection for investment in the sugar industry. Obviously, the Imperial government of Spain would be curious about what was going on, and so communicated with diplomats in Cuba, primarily, Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, Spanish Ambassador to the United States. Unfortunately, in February, his letter to the King was intercepted by Cuban revolutionaries and was published in the New York Journal. The “de Lôme Letter” was riddled with insults to McKinley, which - of course - only stoked public anger further against the Spanish Empire. Then, THE BIG ONE: a week later, on February 15, 1898, the Maine EXPLODED!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

 

“Remember the Maine! And to hell with Spain!”

 

After a month of awaiting the results of a Naval investigation and pursuing diplomatic measures, the rising public pressure forced McKinley to formally request a declaration of war against Spain from Congress on April 11, 1898. By August, the United States had WON!

 

How?

1. The U.S. quickly encircled Cuba to establish a naval blockade, then provided troops and support for the rebel forces there…

> In early July, the last of the major Spanish naval presence was defeated when Santiago Bay was successfully defended from reconquest, including the famous siege of San Juan Hill, where a massive force of American troops - including volunteers led by the recently resigned Assistant Secretary of the Navy - overwhelmed Spanish forces and secured the defesnive position overlooking the bay …

1. The U.S. then launched an invasion of Puerto Rico, to further pressure Spanish military activities in the Caribbean…

> In late July, American forces landed on the island and overtook it, facing minimal resistance…

1. The “Asiatic Fleet” of the U.S. navy docked in Hong Kong for supplies and support from Britain before embarking for The Phillippines, to assist rebel force there!

> In May, Commodore George Dewey commenced a bombardment of Manila Bay, the capital of the colony, before launching a landing invasion where American forces united with revolutionary forces commanded by Emilio Aguinaldo. By June, the combined forces claimed victory, and the rebels declared independence from Spain…

 

It was only a matter of time before the combined forces of rebels and Americans overwhelmed Spanish defenses in the major colonies. The strategy after that would only need to be to DEFEND the newly ‘liberated’ territories when reinforcements arrived, and sue for peace. By the end of the “Spanish-American War,” more American forced died from DISEASES than from actual combat! By December, peace negotiations had concluded, and the United States had clearly succeeded in ALL of it’s expansionist goals. The Treaty of Paris (1898) firmly established the United States as an “EMPIRE,” and decimated the Spanish Empire into obscurity…

Roosevelt & his “Rough Riders” atop San Juan Hill, 1898. Not pictured here are the Buffalo Soldiers who were primarily responsible for securing the hill prior to Teddy’s arrival…

 

 

• THE SPOILS OF WAR

 

 

Similarly to the Civil War, the United States now got to enjoy the “spoils” of war. And, just as how those spoils led to the development of the West, the nation had now received even MORE WEST to develop! The 1898 Treaty of Paris with Spain effectively formed the basis of the American Empire. But, there was a catch! When Congress adopted the war declaration, an AMENDMENT was attached by Senator Henry M. Teller, of Colorado. The Teller Amendment explicitly declared that the United States was ONLY getting involved in a conflict with Spain in order to promote the “Self-Determination” of the Cuban peoples. Meaning, that the U.S. would NOT establish any permanent control over the nation, or thereby turn it into a colony/territory. Don’t worry though; Platt’s resolution said NOTHING about other Spanish territories in need of “liberation,” and, of course, Congressional resolutions can always be overturned.

In any case, other newly “liberated” colonies of Spain that were NOT Cuba were more immediately turned into "possessions" rather than “Protectorates.” This meant that Guam, The Philippines, and Puerto Rico were instead outright TERRITORIES. In 1899, the former ally of the Americans in the Philippines, Aguinaldo, became an enemy - realizing that the Americans were not planning on leaving anytime soon. By 1902, the Philippine-American War had concluded, with the U.S. firmly in control of the colony, with Aguinaldo himself pledging “allegiance” to the U.S. in 1901 after his capture. Inspired by how “splendidly” everything had been going so far, McKinley began implementing true “Imperialism” policies as President, with 2 big actions between 1899 and 1901:

1. McKinley Annexed (claimed)  MULTIPLE Pacific Nations, such as: The Kingdom of Hawaii and American Samoa, strengthening not only American claims in the Pacific Ocean, but also key alliances with Britain and the Dole Fruit Company…
2. McKinley’s Secretary of State, John Hay, formally presented a proposal for TRADE ACCESS to China to the European Imperial powers already there, known as the Open Door Policy, which pledged all empires to the preservation of an “open door” to trade access in all ports, regardless of Spheres of Influence…

 

However, there were still some lingering questions and issues back HOME about America’s new EMPIRE status. First, while the economic benefits of imperialism were immediately apartment to many Americans, there were concerns regarding civic participation. Namely, did the 14th Amendment apply to the inhabitants of the new territories? I mean, it IS a valid question! As territorial citizens, residents of the new colonies WERE (technically) American Citizens. BUT: Did this mean that they could, say, for example… VOTE? In 1901, a series of court cases regarding this very issue were brought up to the Supreme Court, and, the decision of the so-called “Insular Cases” was this: The Constitution does NOT (inherently) follow the Flag.

Second, greatly upset with the outcome of the wars, William Jennings Bryan prepared for a REMATCH with President McKinley in the upcoming 1900 Presidential Election. Namely, while economic issues and “Populism” were still a big deal for him, THIS TIME he could stress the moral argument of “Anti-Imperialism.” In fact, the recently established Anti-Imperialist League endorsed Bryan for President against McKinley, making him a Populist-Democrat-Anti-Imperialist fusionist in 1900; no way he loses THIS TIME…

 

What’s this? A new challenger appears… IT’S WAR HERO, TEDDY ROOSEVELT!

 

Oh yeah, that makes sense…

 

• THE IMPERIAL PRESIDENTS

 

 

 

• THEODORE ROOSEVELT & “BIG STICK DIPLOMACY”: 1901-1909

 

Well, well, well. What a surprise. Our FIRST “Progressive President” is ALSO our first “Imperial President” (So, perhaps NOW we’ll get a clearer picture of what I mean by the “Paternalism” of the period). Now, we’re already very familiar with the DOMESTIC AGENDA of Theodore Roosevelt, but how does his FOREIGN POLICY compare? While his progressivism took the form of the “Square Deal,” his imperialism would be described as “Big Stick Diplomacy,” supposedly derived from the West African proverb: “Speak softly and carry a big stick; You will go far.” And what, you may be asking, IS the “Big Stick” of the United States while Teddy is “Emperor”? Well, recall that he was a student of history while at Harvard, and that he came to some similar conclusions about international order as did Mahan…

 

THE GREAT WHITE FLEET!

 

Investing heavily into the development and improvement of the Navy, Teddy utilized American military MIGHT to defend the new position of the United States as an international EMPIRE. As early as 1901, Teddy reinterpreted the Monroe Doctrine to give the U.S. sole possession of the Western Hemisphere AND therefore the sole authority to intervene into the national (and international) affairs of nations within the region. This addition or amendment to the prior US Foreign Policy became known as “The Roosevelt Corollary,” and Teddy immediately got to work implementing his version of the doctrine. Throughout the early 1900s, European powers claimed that developing nations were defaulting on their debts and threatened military action to collect. Teddy, however, imposed his BIG STICK, and intervened on behalf of the European creditors, in nations like Cuba, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic. 

Perhaps most significantly, however, Roosevelt finally secured the creation of passage through Central America to connect the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans via canal. Initially, he requested that the nation of Colombia sign a treaty allowing the U.S. to pivot it’s earlier canal plans from Nicaragua to the middle of their nation (as it is the narrowest point in the connection between North and South America). However, they refused. In retaliation, in 1903, Roosevelt directly intervened into the internal affairs of the nation, by supporting revolutionaries hoping to gain independence as their own nation. After directly arming, supplying, funding, and blockading ports on their behalf, the nation of Panama was born. And, of course, as a “thank you,” the peace treaty between the two nations ceded territory to the United States as a “Canal Zone.” By 1914, the Panama Canal was constructed, and 100% of the profits for international trade through the region was owned by the United States.

 

 

• WILLIAM TAFT & “DOLLAR DIPLOMACY”: 1909-1913

 

As if the new direction of progressivism under Taft wasn’t enough to upset Teddy, Taft had other ideas regarding how to govern the “American Empire” as well. Rather than operate as a “Police Power” within the Western Hemisphere, Taft instead sought to promote long-term stability and cooperation (dependence?) to the region through economic investment, famously stating he strove to replace “bullets” with “dollars.” Ultimately, however, Taft’s “Dollar Diplomacy” failed.

While the “hands off approach” encouraged a liberalism (in the 19th century definition) in the Americas, whereby United States businesses and banks funnelled investments and operations into “developing nations” within the U.S. Sphere of Influence, rather than promote national independence and mutually beneficial economic relationships for South/Central American nations, instead, these businesses and banks established Banana Republics. After buying up the majority of land, employing locals at cheap wages, and securing exclusive loans with the unstable national governments for further infrastructure development, these American Venture Capitalists effectively “took over” the power-systems of these nations (think back to Hawaii and Dole, for example?). Most notably, this occurred in the nations of Nicaragua, Honduras, The Dominican Republic, and Costa Rica. What happened when the people rose up to challenge this economic imperialism? Well, then Taft would resort to the “Big Stick.” In fact, the U.S. Navy and Marines would be deployed throughout the Taft administration to “protect American interests…”

 

 

• WOODROW WILSON & “MORAL DIPLOMACY”: 1913-1921

 

Lastly, while the 1912 contest between Taft & Teddy produced the accidental ‘progressive’ Presidency of Woodrow Wilson, perhaps the most consequential effect of this election was in terms of the foreign policy agenda shift that resulted in 1913. Rather than continue Taft’s “Dollar Diplomacy” or revert back to Roosevelt’s “Big Stick Diplomacy,” Wilson took a strong approach to yet ANOTHER type of diplomacy, which he called “Moral Diplomacy.” Rather than impose ourselves on other nations by force, or investment, the United States would INSTEAD live up to the ideals of an “Empire of Liberty” and would spread DEMOCRACY! In this framework, the “Monroe Doctrine” was reinterpreted again, this time to define “American Interests” as international democracy, and it was therefore the duty of the United States to “teach” developing nations HOW to be “ready” for independence - WAIT! This is feeling really familiar to some past content for some reason…

 

Wow. There’s a LOT going on here…

 

Ok, so HOW would Wilson go about this great “educational” venture? Let’s look at the most FAMOUS example of his administration: The Mexican Revolution! In 1911, the long-time military dictator of Mexico, Porfirio Diaz, resigned. His replacement, Francisco Madero, was duly elected President, however, as a member of the wealthy class, several agrarian uprisings across the nation the began under Diaz persisted into the Madero administration. The result was a decade-long conflict across the nation, with various “warlords” seizing territory and administering their own laws in spite of the “authority” held by Madero. By 1913, the violence had escalated, with several assassinations producing conflicting and confusing claims to the national Presidency, most notably between Generals Victoriano Huerta and Venustiano Carranza. Enter the “Morally Righteous” Wilson. Since Huerta had assumed command of Mexico by military coup and murder, the United States firmly opposed his administration by supplying his adversaries in the Revolutionary effort, primarily Pancho Villa in the North and Carranza in the South. Additionally, the US Navy blockaded Veracruz in 1914, to prevent international shipments from arriving to the Huerta administration. By 1915, Carranza had succeeded in overthrowing Huerta and installing his “Constitutionalist” regime. Wilson therefore made the significant decision to recognize Carranza as legitimate, and cease supplies to all other revolutionaries. Feeling betrayed, hoping to send a message, needing supplies, and hoping to inspire more widespread support for his radical program of agrarian reform, Villa launched an assault across the border into Columbus, New Mexico, in 1916, in which nearly 20 Americans were killed and the US Army garrison was raided. In response, the Wilson authorized an invasion of Northern Mexico to hunt down Villa. From 1916 to 1917, General John J. Pershing led an expedition into the Mexican State of Chihuahua, involving tanks, troops, and aircraft.

 

Hmmmmmmmm, well what have we here????

 

…So, how did “Moral Diplomacy” end up operating? Well, just like how ‘Dollar Diplomacy’ worked: Teddy’s Big Stick! 

 

And of course, what could go wrong with that???

 

 

• KARMA

 

Full disclosure, this next part could be its own reading/testable unit of study, but we are running out of time this semester, and there’s still A LOT to be covered. So, here we go…

 

TAKE GOOD NOTES!

 

 

• THE GREAT WAR!

 

Ok, so let’s zoom out here for a bit and get a clearer picture of what exactly is going on elsewhere in the world in the early 20th century. While the United States has laid claim to the Western Hemisphere and had begun asserting its claims through various means, the rest of the world has been carved up by the European imperial powers, namely: The United Kingdom (England), France, Russia, and - the newcomer - Germany! Other, ‘lesser’ European powers included Italy, Austria-Hungary, Spain, and the Dutch/Netherlands. Additionally, the Ottoman Empire was still around (although waning in influence). This meant that Europe had been fully claimed, and that colonial impulses had driven these powers into Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. However, despite attempts to co-operate and organize these competitive colonial efforts, such as with the Berlin Conference (1885) and London Conference (1887), tensions remained HIGH between these various Empires.

 

Map of Imperial Claims, 1914

 

By the 1910s, these imperial rivalries and colonial pressures had left these powers in a state of paranoia that historians have described as a “Powder Keg,” implying that there was a DISASTER waiting to happen. So, what were the CAUSES of this explosive situation (heh). Well, historians have another crafty mnemonic device to help students understand the context of the times: M.A.N.I.A.

 

• Militarization

Conquest rivalries often spilled over across colonial boundaries, which meant that INNOVATION in weapons technology was deemed necessary to DEFEND against invasion abroad, but also that the MOBILIZATION of Modern Armies along national borders BACK HOME was also necessary for a sense of “Security.” However, flip perspectives here to the neighboring countries OF this “well-fortified” nation, and consider the rising FEAR they would feel of being caught unprepared… You see where this is going!

 

• Alliances

Now, in addition to weapons, nations could ALSO make themselves feel “safer” by TEAMING UP with neighbors, in particular, POWERFUL Neighbors. Over time, a series of complex treaties had forged a network of defensive alliances that was meant to DETER (prevent/discourage) direct military action against each other…

• Nationalism

Now, to make matters worse, everyone believed themselves to not only be DESTINED to become an Empire, but, more importantly, to become THE EMPIRE. If “patriotism” is a pride and devotion to one's homeland, then “nationalism” is patriotism on steroids. You not only LOVE your country, but you do so un-critically. Your country is THE BEST, and can do NO WRONG. In fact, wouldn’t it be nice if everyone else WHERE your country? Boy, how much BETTER would the world BE if that were the case…

“Long ago, the four nations lived together in harmony.

Then, everything changed when the Fire Nation attacked…”

 

• Imperialism

Ok, I believe this one is pretty self-explanatory. At this point, you really should understand what this is…

 

Now, that’s everything that led to a tense situation amongst the Imperial Powers in the 1910s. HOWEVER, every good powder keg needs a SPARK! Which brings us to…

 

Completely unrelated closeup of the Balkan region of Europe, 1914…

 

• Assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand (June 28, 1914)

As it turns out, people really DON’T like being colonized. In fact, trouble really starts happening in the Balkan region of Southeastern Europe (get used to hearing THIS for the rest of human history). Which brings us to a separate type of “nationalism.” The Super-Duper-Patriotism of the previous definition of Nationalism ONLY applies to countries that ALREADY EXIST! However, the other type of nationalism is the sense of a people WANTING to be their own country. And HERE is why that is relevant. The ‘Empire’ of Austria-Hungary (of which Franz Ferdinand is a royal family member) OWNS the Balkans. Since the annexation of Bosnia & Herzegovina in 1908, a group of “freedom fighters”/nationalistic Serbians called The Black Hand had been active in the region. In the summer of 1914, to ease tensions, Prince Ferdinand and his wife engaged in a P.R. Stunt by touring Bosnia. Turns out that was a mistake!

Cue THIS SONG!

 

Now, the resulting fallout from this assassination is called “The July Crisis,” in which the several previously mentioned Alliances (many of which were holdovers from the 1800s!) were  ACTIVATED! It’s complicated, but I’ll try to keep this brief and logical. Do your best to follow along:

1. Since Ferdinand was the Heir (next ruler) of Austria-Hungary, and his Assassins were Serbian Nationalists, the Empire invaded the Kingdom of Serbia… [July 28]
2. Serbia was allied with the Russian Empire, and so the Tsar (King), Nicolas II, authorized wartime mobilization preparations… [July 30]
3. Austria’s primary ally, Germany, counters by declaring war on Russia… [August 1]
4. France & England begin wartime mobilizations, and so Germany invades Luxembourg in an attempt to get an early advantage… [August 2]
5. Germany then marches on into Belgium & declares war on France… [August 3]
6. Britain declares war on Germany… [August 4]
7. Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia… [August 5]
8. German and Russian troops engage in combat along the Eastern border of Prussia/Russia… [August 17-30]
9. 1st Battle of the Marne: 30-miles from Paris, German troops are forced into retreat by a coalition of British and French forces, and both sides dig TRENCHES to fortify their positions… [September 6-12]
10. The Ottomans allow German ships to strike at Russian ports along the Black Sea, bringing them into the conflict… [October/November]
    
    

PLEASE NOTE: Were there attempts to resolve the ‘crisis’ through diplomacy? Absolutely! Did it work? Well, clearly not. Why not? Ah, now that’s debatable…

 

What does all of this mean? Well, we have TWO “TEAMS,” and TWO MAIN FRONTS:

• The Triple Entente (Allied Powers) = Britain, France, & Russia
• The Triple Alliance (Central Powers) = Germany, Austria-Hungary, & The Ottomans
  
  

 

• The Eastern Front = Central Powers v. Russia

 

The Eastern Front is best characterized by high casualties and a gradual advance of German forces into the Russian mainland. Effectively left alone to their own devices, the Russian Empire was overwhelmed between 1914 and 1917, and the war efforts strained/worsened the already crumbling internal order of the Russian Empire. In 1915, Britain attempted to break through the Ottoman blockade of the Black Sea and provide reinforcements, but the Gallipoli Campaign ended in failure in 1916, after 10 months. By 1917, the Germans had reclaimed territories conquered by the Russians and had counter-advanced INTO Russia. In the chaos, the Russian people turned against the Tsar, and the Bolshevik Revolution began…

 

 

• The Western Front = Germany v. France and Britain…

 

On the other side, the Western Front is most commonly associated with Trench Warfare. Despite the anticipation on both sides of a quick victory, a stalemate had ultimately resulted. As fighting continued, attempts to break through resulted in technological innovations (tanks, mustard gas, machine guns, mines) and diplomacy (Italy formally switched sides in 1915, naval blockades of the North Sea ensued, and attempts to persuade a certain powerful Empire to JOIN took place). But by 1917, the stalemate remained, and the death toll climbed higher…

Say, that looks familiar!

 

 

• THE BONUS FRONT! = The Ottomans v. EVERYBODY!

 

The Ottoman Empire was in a unique position of being unable to participate in the Western Front, while also merely needing to DEFEND the Eastern Front. This meant that the Ottomans could freely pursue their own interests of expanding into the North African colonies of the “Allied Powers,” and attempting to reinvigorate the “Glory Days” of the OLD Ottoman Empire. While the Ottomans’ concept of their significance to the war efforts was defense of the region’s important transit routes through railway and sea, the British and French saw potential for the underdeveloped OIL deposits in the region. In fact, throughout the war, the British sent several spies into the region to attempt to incite rebellion amongst the Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula, to overthrow the Ottomans, and become allies with the United Kingdom. Their efforts were so successful that by 1916, the British and French signed a secret agreement called the Sykes-Picot Agreement, which planned a FUTURE, post-war division of the region between their two empires, without ANY consideration of the internal cultures, politics, and histories of the peoples of the Middle East…

“My Peninsula. My Arabia… The Oil must Flow!”

 

 

• “HE KEPT US OUT OF WAR!”

 

As the European Empires (and the Eastern hemisphere in which Europe “owned”) descended into brutal warfare, across the ocean, Americans had exactly 3 reactions:

1. Wow! That’s why Europe SUCKS! So glad our Empire is one of LIBERTY and not “conquest”...
2. I hope that mess stays OVER THERE and DOES NOT come here!
3. Gee.. I wonder how much money we could make from selling supplies to BOTH SIDES!

 

In the 1916 Presidential Election, Wilson faced off against a resurgent and reunified Republican Party - Both Taft AND Teddy were in attendance and eventually CAMPAIGNED FOR the eventual candidate: Charles Evan Hughes, Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court! WOW, MR. LANGE! What could have possibly forced the G.O.P. to put aside their differences and unite behind a single candidate to oppose Wilson!? Well… WAR! As “The Great War” began in 1914, Wilson pushed for neutrality, pledging in speeches and documents that the nation would remain impartial, effectively reinterpreting the “Monroe Doctrine” (and Roosevelt Corollary) to not only keep Europe Over There, but also to keep America Over HERE. This was the exact OPPOSITE of what many Republicans felt was the “correct approach.” For Hughes, not only had Wilson ruined America with “pro-Labor” policies, but, WORSE YET, he had inadequately prepared the United States to defend itself in the event that the European conflict spilled over across the Atlantic. Teddy just wanted to fight!

So, what was it exactly that they felt proved Wilson was unprepared for the defense of the United States? Well, earlier, in 1915, the first major challenge to American neutrality occurred when a British cruise ship, the RMS Lusitania, was sunk by a German U-Boat (Submarine). WAIT! Mr. Lange, how did the sinking of a BRITISH Ship impact American ‘neutrality’? …GREAT QUESTION!

1. The ship had over 130 Americans aboard, most of whom died in the German attack…
2. The ship ALSO had thousands of cases of ammunition cargo heading out from New York to Liverpool - a DIRECT violation of the “Naval Blockade” established by Germany in the North Atlantic…

 

Due to BOTH of the above circumstances, many argued that American neutrality had been violated by Germany. Wilson, in particular, had harsh words for Germany and launched into a HEATED diplomatic exchange with Germany, demanding that the Empire pay reparations for the damages to American interests (and lives) and pledge to RESPECT American neutrality by ENDING their policy of “Unrestricted Submarine Warfare.” While Germany apologized and vowed to scale back their U-Boat attacks, tensions still remained high - you know, because the North Atlantic is an ACTIVE WAR ZONE! 

The ideological split in wartime foreign policy in the Presidential Election of 1916 coincided with the push/pull in American public opinion. While the majority of Americans supported neutrality, many ALSO felt aligned with the interests of Britain and France, against Germany. In short, the campaign was an attempt to PUSH the American public to one side or the other: War, or Not. 

 

Some vintage Wilson “America First” campaign messaging…

 

In the end, Wilson’s combination of Progressivism at Home and “Peace, without Victory” Abroad was enough to win re-election against the somewhat controversial Hughes. Despite Roosevelt’s support in the General Election, Hughes’ perceived anti-Progressivism and pro-War-ish stances made the American voting public trust Wilson with four more years.

Congratulations to Wilson for FINALLY earning more popular votes than William Jennings Bryan!

 

And what does Wilson do after being inaugurated for a second term in March 1917?

He turns around and asks Congress to declare war on Germany in April!!!!!!!!!!!

 

American voters, when Wilson asks Congress to “Make the World Safe for Democracy”...

 

Ok, so… NEW QUESTION: WHY?!?!?!?!

Well, a FEW REASONS, actually…

1. In January, British intelligence revealed to Wilson that they had intercepted a telegram from the German Foreign Secretary, Arthur Zimmerman, proposing an ALLIANCE with Mexico!
2. Despite earlier promises from Germany to scale back U-boat aggression, they did not. By February, 1917, Germany had resumed their policy of “Unrestricted Submarine Warfare,” and between February and March, had sunk at least 5 other American “merchant ships”...
3. The Bolshevik “February Revolution” in Russia had succeeded in overthrowing the Romanov family, beginning a transitional period and civil war, where (in the midst of the larger war), the Russian Empire would pivot to becoming the world’s first Communist nation…

 

And so, Wilson, always the ‘professor,’ looked to turn this crisis into a learning opportunity, or, “a teachable moment,” whereby the United States would SAVE THE WORLD, by ending the pointless conflict and then leading the European powers (as their “Savior”) into a GLORIOUS period of DEMOCRACY, and “away” from Imperialism… Sound familiar? It’s Wilsonianism, but THIS TIME, for Europe! I’m sure everything will work out EXACTLY as he has planned…

 

 

• OVER HERE?

 

Ok, so Wilson has been dragged into the “Great War,” and he is DETERMINED to make it “The War to END all Wars.” That’s going to require a LOT of mobilization, preparation, and effort. I mean, we’re talking about an international conflict against European Empires IN EUROPE… We’ve NEVER done that before! So, what’s the plan? I’m glad you asked…

 

PROGRESSIVISM ON STEROIDS!!!!!!!!!!!

 

It is important to remember a few crucial pieces of context to help better understand the American “Home Front” of The Great War: 

1. This IS STILL also the so-called “Progressive Era”...
2. The Union has perfected “Total War” strategy since first utilizing it in the Civil War!

 

“All Hands on Deck!”

As you can tell, every ‘GOOD’ American enlists, plants gardens, makes do with LESS, and buys War Bonds!

 

Winning this war quickly and effectively would REQUIRE the U.S. Federal Government to re-engage in some controversial “Temporary Wartime Measures,” … AND THEN SOME! 

Such as:

1. U.S. Committee on Public Information (April, 1917) = Production of materials for public awareness (AKA: Propaganda), regarding “Liberty Loans,” “Victory Gardens,” “Conservation,” “Enlistment,” and “Jingosim” (Wartime Patriotism)...
2. Selective Service Act (May 18, 1917) = THE DRAFT IS BACK!!!!!!!!!

 

• Espionage Act (June 15, 1917) = Established penalties for dissent and spying…

• War Industries Board (July 28, 1917) = Federal oversight of wartime production NEEDS!

• Food and Fuel Control Act (August 10, 1917) = Expanded authority to regulate conservation efforts (of materials for the war effort, NOT natural environments)…

• War Revenue Act (October 3, 1917) = HIGHER INCOME TAX!!!! (For wartime needs)

• Nationalization of Railroads (December, 1917) = Wartime need for efficiency…

• Sedition Act (May 16, 1918) = Strengthening limitations on anti-war speech & actions…

 

 

I know what you’re thinking: “Mr. Lange, this all seems sort of… Un-Constitutional, RIGHT?” Well, good thing we have a Supreme Court to help us figure that out! Remember, however, that the “Appellate” system of the Judiciary means that complaints will take a long time to arrive at the high court. So, while a series of wartime complaints/violations will be filed, the decisions will not be issued until AFTER the war. And, in fact, in 1919, the White Court determined that, actually, everything was COMPLETELY LEGIT! In the 1919 cases Schenck v. US and Debs v. US, the court upheld the “Constitutionality” of the Espionage & Sedition Acts, by reinterpreting the First Amendment protections of “Free Speech” to actually NOT apply to “dangerous speech, during times of WAR”.... as it represents a “Clear & Present Danger.” … WOW! What a great precedent! And, what exactly WAS the “Dangerous Speech” that these plaintiffs were accused of promulgating during the war? WHY, Schenck and Debs were separately arrested for OPPOSING the Draft and the War. Ok, well, that seems pretty important. Is there anything else that’s “significant” to know about the Home Front during this war?

 

OF COURSE!

But, in the interest of preserving page count space, we’ll cover that in class!

 

• OVER THERE!

 

Now, ts one thing to mobilize for war, it’s another entirely to go FIGHT that war - and a war as destructive and complex as this one, we’ll need one talented leader to oversee our operations. Fortunately, Wilson has just the man for the job! GENERAL JOHN J. PERSHING! In response to Wilson’s declaration of war, Pershing’s expedition to Mexico was ended, with he and his forces recalled to prepare for dispatch to the Western Front. By June, Pershing and the American Expeditionary Forces (A.E.F.) had arrived in France, ready to assist the Allies in their fight. In fact, on July 4, 1917, a battalion of Pershing’s forces marched through Paris, past the tomb of Marquis de Lafayette, with Colonel Stanton remarking, “Lafayette, we are here,” as a symbolic returning of the favor for the Revolutionary’s efforts in the U.S. war for independence.

What was the overall impact of the American arrival? Well, I don’t want to over sell it, but the war did end pretty quickly AFTER the arrival of U.S. forces. In fact, A.E.F. troops partook is several significant battles that would turn the tide against the Germans along the Western Front. Namely, the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, in which over 1 million men stormed the German lines and forced an end of the war, including the all-black Harlem Hellfighters unit, who never retreated and were the first American unit to reach the Rhine, and the famous war hero Alvin York, who captured over 100 German machine gunners and was awarded the Medal of Honor. Additionally, technological innovation likely played a role here as well, with the A.E.F. deploying Browning Machine Guns and utilizing the crucial “Walking Fire” tactics to assist in crossing “No Man’s Land” and breaking through the trench war stalemates. In the long-run, while the rest of the world would remember the history of this conflict as long, drawn-out, a bloody, the United States would remember it as the FIRST TIME “America saved the world…”

 

 

• THE WAR TO END ALL WARS…

 

Alright, this reading is getting LOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOONG… So let’s wrap this up! 

 

Roughly 19 months after the United States declared war on Germany, the fighting ended. Aboard a train car in the midst of the forests north of Paris, France, representatives from Germany, France, Britain, and the United States signed an Armistice (ceasefire agreement), officially ending hostilities with a German surrender, and beginning the process of negotiating PEACE. As the popular saying goes: “At the 11th hour, on the 11th day, of the 11th month, (11 A.M., November 11th, 1918) the guns stopped.” 

 

Boy, what a neat-looking train car and historical moment!

I sure hope that no soldier ends up looking at this moment as a major turning point in the wrong direction for their homeland and tries to reverse this exact moment in the future…

 

With the war now DONE, in December 1918, President Wilson personally embarked on a voyage to France to participate in the peace negotiations. Feeling responsible for the Allied victory over the Central Powers, and guided by his moral diplomacy, Wilson sought to LEAD the negotiations, and bring about a new age of international order, peace, and prosperity…

So, what was Wilson’s grand VISION for World Peace? Always the professor, Wilson had a detailed outline for exactly HOW to accomplish his goal, called “The 14 Points.” The plan (as you can tell) included fourteen specific items that Wilson believed were REQUIRED for lasting peace, including Free Trade, Unrestricted Sea Access, Colonial readjustments/restoration, national rights to self-determination, and Arms Reductions. Clearly, the BIG IDEA of his plan was a shift in the European leaders’ imperialistic mentalité. Rather than simply REVERT BACK to imperial rivalries, militarism, and secret alliances, Wilson hoped to bring about a peace treaty that led to COOPERATION, NOT punishment! Chief among these proposals was the establishment of an INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION that would allow for conflict-resolution by diplomacy and debate, rather than war: THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS!

As you can tell, clearly the European empires had other ideas in mind…

 

On June 28, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed by the Paris Peace Conference attendees. It is clear from the details that Wilson had LOST in his efforts to promote “Wilsonianism” abroad. Rather than establish a post-war status quo that would secure a lasting peace, historians argue that the ‘peace’ agreement merely set the stage for an inevitable follow-up conflict. The majority of the treaty focuses on assigning “War Guilt” to the Central Powers, and thereby penalizing them through territorial losses and reparation payments. However, by January 1919, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had collapsed, and the Ottoman Empire was well on its way to doing the same, meaning the only country left to punish was GERMANY!

In addition to LOSING LAND, Germany also had to “demilitarize” and pay roughly $32 Billion to the Allies…

Map of the world, according to Imperial Colonies, 1920.

The clear ‘winners’ of this colonial readjustment are Britain and France!

(Compare with the previous map several pages ago, at the start of the war)

 

Wilson did, however, walk away from Versailles in July 1919 with ONE victory: The League of Nations had been formed. While Britain and France had clearly hoped to continue to influence international affairs THROUGH the organization, Wilson was determined to continue to fight for his 14 points through the organization. But, before Wilson could do so, he would need to return home and convince the U.S. Senate to RATIFY the treaty…

As you can tell, that might be easier SAID than done!

 

Things back home hadn’t been so great during the President’s absence from December 1918 to July 1919. The end of the war brought about demobilization efforts, which led to a decrease in economic activity, renewed labor disputes, and, ultimately, a full post-war recession in 1920. Additionally, as one of the few nations to NOT experience any fighting at home during the war, several hundreds of THOUSANDS of immigrants flocked to the United States, seeking economic opportunity and political stability. Instead, they found nativist resistance and racialized terror. Fearing economic competition, a dilution of “American” culture, and political radicalism of the Eastern European Anarchists, Socialists, and Communists, a so-called “Red Scare” commenced. In addition to race riots throughout the summer of 1919, Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer conducted a series of “raids” across the nation in an attempt to deport “dangerous aliens.” Lastly, from 1918 to 1920, the inaccurately named “Spanish Flu” pandemic ravaged the nation, leading to debates about local and state public health policies that included mandating masks, suspending school, and closing non-essential businesses. In the midst of the chaos, the only hope many Americans had was that their efforts would “Make the World Safe for Democracy.” When the President returned home, it was clear they had not.
On July 10, 1919, Wilson formally presented the Treaty of Versailles to the U.S. Senate for their consideration, and strongly recommended that they ratify (approve) it. HOWEVER, during the wartime MIDTERM elections of 1918, the Republicans had gained COMPLETE CONTROL of Congress, and the Senate, in particular, was under the command of Conservative Republicans, chief among them, Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, who served as BOTH Majority Party Leader AND Chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee. Lodge and others had issues with the treaty, or, as they called them, “reservations.” However, this group of “Reservationists” (get it?) hoped that COMPROMISE could occur. A separate group of Senators, however, calling themselves “irreconcilables,” felt that no amount of compromise could salvage the treaty. The main issue for BOTH factions? THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS!

According to many, the League was UNCONSTITUTIONAL, as it directly violated the sovereignty of the United States by tying the nation to the interests of an international Government. In particular, Article X of the treaty required League members to defend each other if provoked, which meant that the all-important power of war declarations held by Congress (Article I, Section 8) was seemingly being TAKEN OVER by other countries. Rather than compromise any further on his agenda, President Wilson took the initiative by appealing directly to the People, attempting to convince them to support the treaty and to contact their Senators to pressure them into supporting it. Wilson’s plan was to tour the Midwest AND Western States, from September through November, when the Senate would vote on the treaty. Unfortunately, despite drawing large crowds, Wilson was unable to convince the public of the good of joining the League of Nations. Many Americans were more concerned with domestic issues and were “done” with Europe after feeling betrayed by the Allies after the war. Additionally, Wilson pushed himself too hard and suffered a stroke in early October! The remainder of the tour was cancelled, and the nation was left ‘leaderless.’ By the end of November, the Senate had twice REJECTED the Treaty of Versailles and REFUSED to Join the League of Nations…

 

 

• CONCLUSION: WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE GOOD OLD DAYS?

 

If the Great War is considered the pinnacle of Progressivism in American history, then what should that mean for how we consider the FAILURE of the Treaty of Versailles? By 1920, Americans were seemingly turning their back on not only Wilson’s foreign policy initiatives, but the rest of the world, too. Henry Cabot Lodge and other Conservative Republicans were ready to use the opportunity to push for a reclamation of the party and country in the upcoming Presidential Election of 1920.

 In the midst of the chaos of the post-war home front and the BETRAYAL by international “Allies,” the Conservative Republicans felt the American public was ready for NORMALCY. What does this mean? Well, that’s the genius of this political strategy; The less detailed the definition, the more SPECIFIC each VOTER can imagine the policy to be! One thing is for certain, however, without Wilson in a position to LEAD as President, the Progressive AND Imperialist policies of the past several decades were slowly being undone between 1919 and 1921. If the War was the END of American Imperialism, then why couldn’t it be the END of Progressivism, too?

I’ll leave you with this final tidbit, however, regarding the cultural LEGACY of the “War to End All Wars.” Regardless of how things ended for each nation involved and how that left each nation's citizenry feeling (Betrayed, Dismayed, or Victorious, for example…), what is CONSISTENT across the board is the clear awareness of “Disillusionment.” At the end of this long conflict, Imperialism remained, and - arguably - worsened. Meaning: What the HELL did those 20 million young men even die for?!

While the “polite” thing to do after returning to war was to keep your thoughts and memories to yourself, returning soldiers found that hard, if not IMPOSSIBLE to do. They had seen some traumatic things - absolutely unthinkable things. The impact this had on human culture is undeniable. In art, the horrors of reality drove many to pursue “absurdism,” or “surrealism,” reflecting a sense of insanity that had been brought on by the massive conflict. Logic and reason were clearly DEAD; …Long live THE CRAZY! In literature, young writers calling themselves “The Lost Generation” grappled with the inhumanity they witnessed and the intense new sense of REALISM they felt. To put it another way, idealism DIED in this war, and what remained was not necessarily hopelessness, but rather a depressing realization that humanity, human nature, and human order are very, VERY fallible (prone to mistakes). Whether it be war, social reform, economic equality, race relations, or anything else, humanity SUCKS! Now THAT’S Depressing!

Perhaps the most significant work of literature to emerge from this “movement” was the German book, All Quiet on the Western Front, by Eric Maria Remarque (1928). The work presented a clear thesis about the futility of nationalism and war, holding a mirror not only to the German Empire, but also to the wider warring nations.“What was the point?” is perhaps the simplest and spoiler-free summary of the work that can be offered, and it was an IMMEDIATE Best-Seller! By 1930, the work had been adapted into a major motion picture, drawing in crowds to theatres across the globe and earning the Academy Award for “Outstanding Production” (Now, “Best Picture”). It seemed that, at least in the United States, the general public had turned staunchly “Anti-War,” culturally. But what does that mean regarding living your daily life as an individual? Well, for many, it meant distracting yourself by any means necessary…

 

Look at the fashion, dancing, and drinking, and all that JAZZ!!!!!